美国文化英语论文汇总十篇

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篇（1）

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. The Characteristics of Black English 2

2.1 Phonetics 2

2.2 Grammar 3

3. The Influence on American Culture 7

3.1 The Influence on American English 7

3.2 The Influence on American Art 9

3.3 The Influence on American Literature 11

4. The Practical Significance of Black English 14

5. Conclusion 15

Acknowledgements 16

References 17

 

1．Introduction

Black English is a social dialect of American English, and it has been historically influenced by West African languages, General Southern American English and English-based creoles.

 This kind of English shares several characteristics with the forms of Creole English spoken by people throughout the whole world. In addition, it also has pronunciation, grammatical structures, and vocabulary in common with various West African languages.[1]198 Since a large number of Black people migrate to America and they have the percentage of more than 12%, [2]496the Black English has been popularized in this country. But in the American society, people seldom realize the influence and contribution of Black English and they never give the equal state to Black people. In fact, the language and culture of American reflect the contributions of the Black English in many aspects, such as linguistic, art and literature.

Nowadays, it is reasonably acceptable to say that Black English is not only an independent language but also making practical significance to American English and the American Culture. Researchers need to study the significance in details. So this paper intends to collect the study of the characteristics of Black English, and then summarize its influences on the American English. Since the change of language can lead changes in other aspects, such as Art and Literature aspects, this paper also states the influence in detailed options.

The method of this paper is reviewing the past study and surveys, not just from the linguistic point of view or the historical aspects of Black English, but from its formation and characteristics to demonstrate the existence and development of Black English and the practical significance. Through the analysis of Black English on the profound impact of American culture, the paper advances a view on the value of Black English and its prospects. Finally it puts forward the importance and necessity of enhancing learning and research on Black Culture as the continuous improvement and economic conditions of Black people.

2. The Characteristics of Black English

Black English, as a unique variant of English, has many differences with the Standard English based on the structure of language. And this paper tends to discuss the features of Black English in phonetics and grammar aspects. Since Black English is not just a simplified version of English, it has a unique language system with the same fixed structure as any other dialect all over the world.

2.1 Phonetics

Most Black people use a distinctive English variant. This black dialect has aroused many linguists’ interests. Repeatedly been labeled as “pidgin English”, Black English’s role in the development of American Culture can not be questioned. Black English as a source of Black Culture has always been paid more attention by linguists and sociologists in nowadays.

2.1.1 The Weakened Consonant

Because of the influence of West African, some voiced consonants are the same with their form of voiceless consonant. Word-final devoicing of /b/, /d/, and /g/ are always pronounced to //, //, //, and in most cases these phonemes are ignored. In order to make a difference between them, sometimes the vowel before the voiced consonants could be slightly re-read harder, take the “heat and heed”, “let and led” and “fate and fade” which is ended with the word “e” as examples.

In the syllables which are combined with consonants and vowels, some nasals can also be weakened, such as “sum, sun, sung”, and only the vowel // in the word which is somewhat influenced by the nasal.

2.1.2 The Omission of Consonant Clusters

    The simplification of Consonant Clusters is an obvious feature of Black English. The mutes in English are //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //. Black English often omit the mutes in the end of a word, and the word “side”// is always pronounced to “sigh”//. This kind of omission is not arbitrary, and it is decided by the situation of pronouncing a word: when the mute at the end only represents the morpheme is not connected, for example, the frequency of reserving // is higher than integral part of the stem in the word “borrow”. It will also be reserved if there is vowel behind the mute, such as the first “d” in the phrase “tried hard”.

2.1.3 The Pronunciation of // and //

The omission of // is a notable characteristic of Black English. In American, it is a tendency of underclass to omit // before vowels but not only of Black English.[3]297Because of this kind of omission, there is no differences between “guard-god”, “fort-fought” and “sore-saw” in Black English.When // is between two vowels, the syllable after it needn’t be pronounced, as “Paris” could be read as//; when there is a word beginning with vowel behind it, the // could also be regretted.

// is voiceless before the consonant, such as the word “health” always be pronounced to // and so on. However, when // is after the vowel as the end of the word, it is assimilated by the phoneme before it, such as the similar pronunciation with “mail” and “may”//. In addition, // is voiceless before // and //, as “always”//, “already” //. The more interesting thing is that they pronounce “will” to “ah”，for example, “I ah be there in a minute.” While the correct form in Standard English is “I will be there in a minute.”

2.1.4 The Pronunciation of // and //

In Black English, // is always pronounced as // and // is always pronounced as //, for example, “think” is pronounced to be //. While the // in the end of a word is transformed to //, and “mouth” is pronounced to be //, “nothing” is to //. In addition, the “th” in the middle of a word is always pronounced to be //, so “mother” is to //, “other” is to //, and “brother” is to //.

Actually, there are many more characters than mentioned in the paper, but we can recognize the differences of phonetics between Black English and Standard English just from the mentioned examples.

 Smith Thurman, a well-known expert in Black English, said that black dialect used same number of English phonemes with white, and the only difference is the distribution pattern of phoneme.[4]553

2.2 Grammar

    There are also many researches who have found the special usage in grammar of Black English. For example, the different meanings in the sentences “He workin’” and “He done worked” are hard to be explained by the Standard English. The first means “He is working 253.It also indicates the difference between Simple progressive and emphasized perfective. Not only the tense plays a different role in the grammar, there are many other points such as the relative usage of the word “be”, the negation and transmission of the word.

2.2.1 Tense

    Syntax best embodies the characteristics of Black English. In the verb-system, the differences between Black English and Standard English are most significant, which is most similar with pidgin and Creole their ancestors used. In Black English, the only duty of the verb in the sentence is to indicate the time concept of one or a few verbs, and other verbs can be expressed in verb stem. Sometimes when the context gives essential temporal support, the tense can be totally regretted. For example, in the following section of black sermons, the Preacher has made it clear that he is talking about the past, because both the life and devotion of Jesus have already happened: “The man Jesus，he come your sins! He the thieves and here. He die to walk the earth. He you from go among try to Save the unrighteous. The master say whoever will let him come!”

In addition, the singular verb of third person in Present Tense is not ended with “s”, for example, “She work in the factory”.

Black English has two Perfect Tenses: “Remote Perfect aspect” which is constituted by the “been” and “Immediate Perfect aspect” constituted by “done”. At this point, Black English and West African languages is extremely similar. [6]

    (i) The “been” in “remote perfect aspect” has a certain meaning of action in past tense. And this kind of perfect tense could be divided into two forms: I been know him(momentary action), I been knowin’-him.(ongoing action).

    (ii) “Immediate Perfect aspect” uses the auxiliary verb “done”. In modern Black English, following sentence are commonly used:

    ① I done go.

    ② I done went.

③ I done gone.

    These three are used in different situations:

    ① Used in the Immediate Present sentences.

    ② Used in the Simple Past sentences.

    ③ Used in the semi adjective structures.

2.2.2 Relative usage of “be”

The usage of“be”in Black English is also very special. If one action, thing or state does not happen frequently, the“be”in this sentence will be deleted. For example, “he in the house -watchin’ TV”. The abbreviation of the copula such as “is” and “are” can also be deleted. In addition, when in a passive sentence the passive voice is not expressed so clearly by the speaker, “be” can also be deleted, for example, “the factory built in 1958”. However if the action happens frequently, “be” can be used as the predicate verb in the sentence“they be out in the yard every night.”

When“be” and“do” work together means this kind of thing happens frequently in the Interrogative sentences and Emphatic sentences. For example, “Do you be playing all day?” (Do they play all day?) “Yeah, the boys do mess around a lot.”(Yeah, the boys do mess around a lot.) Famous linguist William Labov researched a lot in the Black English and concluded that: all the“be”which can appear in the forming of abbreviation can be deleted in Black English. [7]113Actually, the usage of “be”is far more complex than this conclusion which is easily got from the above descriptions. 

2.2.3 Negation

There are three different versions of negation in Black English: “ain’t”, “don’” and “dit’n”, which can be written as “ain’t”, “don’t” and “didn’t”. While the special usage of “ain’t” is a feature of Black English. Ain not is a negative form in past tense: I ain’t see. In a sentence, the negation always repeated: I ain’t see nothin’ like that no place. The meaning is equivalent of: I did not see anything like that anywhere. (I’ve never seen this kind of thing in any place.) When the predicate is not active verb, ain’t become the only symbol of negation. For example, I ain’t afraid of nothing. He ain’t gonna get no money out of it. Besides, it can be combined with "ing" and make up the present continuous tense. For example, we ain’t kidding and we ain’t quitting, we ain’t turning back. 

The function of “ain’t” in Black English is same with the “haven’t” in Standard English. Therefore the “We haven’t contacted each of her since last Christmas.” can be evolved to “We ain’t contacted each of her since last Christmas.” Sometimes, “ain’t” can replace the phrase “didn’t” in simple negation sentence. So in Black English, sentences can be like following forms: “She ain’t email me yesterday.” The young boy insisted, “I ain’t steal his wallet.” “I ain’t run like that in years.”

Multi-negation means there is not only one symbol of negation. Under this regulation, the pronoun needs to add some mark of negation.

For example: “She ain’t see any thing/ anyone at the railway station” can be changed into “She ain’t see nothing/ nobody at the railway station”. If the subject is “nobody” but not “he” or “Janet”, it will add negative determiner at the beginning of the sentence. This is called “negative inversion” by linguists. As a result, it is very common to hear that “Didn’t nobody say nothing to the peoples!”

3. The Influence on American Culture

An important contribution of Black English is the influence on the American Culture. The familiar “negro spiritual”, the unusual rhythms and the famous performance in movie and literature —all these originated with the slaves. It is said that what is the best and most original in American popular culture has its roots in Black English. Important black speakers, singers, actors and writers are too numerous to list.

3.1 The Influence on American English

He Ruigao expresses his opinion in his article Black English that there are some differences in certain aspects of language between Black English and American English. And he believes that after all, Black English is a variant of English, so the differences are only in some degree rather than fundamental, and do not affect the people’s contacts.

It is clear that there is a strong relationship between Black English and American English, while the distinct characters of Black English are not fully explained and its origins are still a matter of debate. One theory is that Black English arose from one or more slave creoles that arose from the trans-Atlantic African slave trade and the need for African captives to communicate among themselves and with their captors.  According to this theory, these captives’ language developed into what are called pidgins, simplified mixture of two or more languages. As pidgins are from closely contact between members of different language communities, the slave trade would have been exactly such a situation. Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated whites. As the time passes, the Black English gradually plays an important role in the United States and U.S. Culture.

3.1.1 The Forming of Black English

In the slave society, there are so many different languages that the natives on two sides of the river cannot understand each other. But the safest way for them to keep their authority is to trade with the different nations on both sides of the river. The famous writer, Cotton Mather, claimed to have been very familiar with his slaves’ speech, and his imitative writing shows features presented in many Creole languages and even in modern Black English. By the time of the American Revolution, varieties among slave creoles were not quite mutually intelligible.

Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated whites. In Army Life in a Black Regiment (1870), Thomas Wentworth Higginson detailed many features of his soldiers' language. Shana Poplack has also provided corpus-based evidence from isolated enclaves in Samaná and Nova Scotia lived by descendants of migrations of early Black English-speaking groups. All of these researches suggest that the grammar of early Black English is closer to that of contemporary British dialects than modern urban Black English to current American dialects. We can find that the modern language is a result of divergence from mainstream varieties, rather than the result of creolization from a widespread American creole. 

3.1.2 The Relations with the American English

In United States, blacks worked in this land with the identity of slaves and inherited some habits from the African culture and language, and thus gradually formed a black American society with unique culture. While the communication between the black slaves and the slavers became a major hub linking the two cultures, and produced a subtle influence to American English, which mainly reflected in English words borrowed, as well as the meaning of the word twists and turns, and the absorption of idioms. Its pronunciation is, in some respects, common to Southern American English, which is spoken by many African Americans and many non-African Americans in the United States.

There is little regional variation among speakers of Black English.89 In order to understand the United States and American culture, and to acquire its development, Blacks melt their culture, such as language, literature and art, with those of the United States. Later, Black English is not only for Black people, it is still widely used by a number of regional dialects. Even in literature works, authors often use Black English to show the hero's nationality, identity and upbringing.

Not only the phonetics and grammar of Black English prove the influence to American language, but we can also achieve it from the assertion of Black English. For example, “the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice” means “she is very mature and favorable”. Another example, “you aren’t got a pot to piss in on a window to throw I tout of” means that you are very pool. “If I tell you a hen hip snuff, look under its wing and find a whole box” means that all you said is true. “You never miss yo water till yo well run dry” means that “you will never feel the importance of water until you are very thirst”.[10]6-7 The representative assertion is very lively and meaningful, suggesting the wisdom of the Black English.

3.2 The Influence on American Art

When Blacks live in Africa, they have the hobby to sing and dance during laboring. But then they are later taken away as slaves by the colonists to the southern United States plantation. They work in the fields wearing shackles and live in the primitive hut in the deserted swamp and jungle. But due to this kind of suffering, they create a valuable oral literature including hymns and blues and other Black Art, which has made an outstanding contribution to the culture to the United States.

3.2.1 The Integration with Music 

    It is generally believed that music of blacks has some distinctive forms from American music like American Ragtime, Blues, Jazz, Musical and Country music. Ragtime was first played by a black Anonymous piano, which was very popular in the late 19th century to early 20th century. It uses segmentation rhythm, trying to evolve from the popular dance music of blacks, and then Ragtime music appears. Scott. Joplin is one of the Ragtime representatives, and his performance of “Maple Leaf pull tone” has been a smash hit, which is so famous that all of the Ragtime pianist would play in their shows.

Blues is from field horn and songs with a strong feeling of African tradition and its tunes are always sad. The most famous Blues singer is Bessie Smith, known as Blues Queen. When Ragtime, Blues and other tunes with rich colors of Africa's influence add together with the elements in Europe, the Jazz comes into being.  

With the integration of grammar, the ways people sing a song become various in American. Many young people jump into the swim of “rap” and “hip-hop”, which is considered as a really fashion style to express one song and the soul. While among the most famous masters, more than 90 percent are black people, such as the episode in Prison Break.

The word “rap” meant “blame” in the middle of 18th century and was always used in phrase in the 19th, “to take the rap” meant “to take the blame”. After the civil war, black people used it to blame white people and requested the equality with them. And finally it replaced the word “conversation” to be popular among the white teenagers. There are many simplifications of words in “rap” which become totally different with American English. For example, the “er” in the end of word is changed into “a”, “nigger” into “nigga”.[11]185 Besides, the “ks” or “cks” in the end of a word can be replaced by “x” because they have the same pronunciation. All of these examples prove that it has become a new version of grammar in American English. For example, the “re” or “e” which can’t be heard during a speedy song are always omitted such as “more” and “mo”, “for” and “fo”, or the number “4”. The omission of “g” in “ing” is another new grammar in American English.

Some words also change its pronunciation. For example, in the word “through”, “gh” never being pronounced is know to all, since we pronounce “th” // in stead of // there is no difference in pronunciation with the word “true”.

In the “rap”, the Black English has many distinct characters and its lyrics tend to be more fashion and creative. Most of these new word are very short or the abbreviation of some long words so that even the local Americans can not understand. In order to keep its character of fashion, “rap” uses word on the point of fashion. Therefore, the characteristics of Black English are the foundation of “rap”, which makes it no longer a simple style of music but a diverse style.

3.2.2 The Integration with Film 

Film is an integrated form of art, with combination of test technology, art and commerce, and the thought of images it brings to the human mind is revolutionary. Because it's easy to be accepted, the film is destined to be a mass media on hundreds of millions people when it appears. In a short century, Hollywood becomes a symbol of American mass culture, and the influence on American society is immeasurable.

Film expresses and promotes the life style and values of Americans. During the war era, it boosts moral e of the soldiers. While in the Depression era, it could replace the cash of the American dream and reflected the public's ideals and dreams. In this case, blacks also express their dream to achieve the equality in the American society through the film, such as Shaw shank Redemption, the Pursuit of Happiness and Death Pact and so on. Because of the success of these works and the influence on future, some later generations continued to collect and summarize the classic dialogue in these black films, and to commemorate the black culture for future generations to study at the same time.

There are two characteristics of grammar which can be easily found in the black films.First is the invariant of “be”, and second is the multi-negation of“ain’t”.The invariant of“be”is used before verb, adjective, noun and passive voice in Black English.

(i)Your gas bill be high, don’t it? (Your gas bill is usually high, isn’t it?)

(ii) My boss be in his office by 8am. (My boss is usually in his office by 8am.)

(iii)It don’t be dogged. I grease it and oil it. (It isn’t usually dogged, I grease it and oil it.)

Laurel Avenue (1993) is a story about a family’s effort to counter drug, faction and violence in order to achieve the “American Dream”. In the film, when Rashhawn’s uncle blamed on his sailing drug, he said that “What the hell I be giving you money fuh[for ]？” while his word can also be translated to “Do you know why I always give you money ? ”

It is worthy to mention that this kind of grammar in the film is also very popularized by young Latinos. Therefore, the Black English users have crossed the racial boundaries and expanded to the crowd who are favor of hip hop culture.

The multi-negation of “ain’t” can be fully realized in the most influential black filmmaker Spike Lee’s masterpiece Do the Right Thing. The story happened in Brooklyn, New York, and demonstrated an explosion caused by the ethnic problems. There are a large number of unique performances of Black English in the dialogues:   “Ain’t no brothers on the wall? I ain’t run like that in years. Don’t call me no bum. Jade don’t come here no more, all right? Don’t call me nothing.”

Although many so-called “not standard”regulations of Black English have been criticized for a long time, its expression is an important means to promote Black Culture of the Hollywood directors and become a beautiful view in American films.

3.3 The Influence on American Literature

In the destiny of black, there must be a clearly visible way, on which they have worked with effort to win dignity and literary. Through their effort, it exhibited such a road as well as those marks in relation to life along the way: once in Black history, unforgettable pain is essential for the experience to the results today. Black Literature, in the United States and the world, has been mainly as slaves, especially in countries outside Africa.

The Black English writer Toni Morrison was born in black family, and later achieved today’s scholars and writer’s identity by reading. In 1993, because of her “making the important part of American society much more vigorously through the rich poetic imagination and expression”, she won the Nobel Prize for Literature, and became the only black women writer in history to be honored.

Not only the Black Literature but also the American Literature has these characters of Black English in their works.

The Sound and the Fury (1929) is written by a famous American writer William Faulkner (1897-1962). The first part, “April 7th, 1928”, describes the conversation and action between the children in the farm waiting for the coming of procession.

“I skeered I going to holler,” T.P said.

“Get on the box and see is they started.”

“They haven’t started because the band hasn’t come yet.” Caddy said.

“They ain’t going t have no band.” Frony said.

“How do you know?” Caddy said.

“I know what I knows,” Frony said.

“You don’t know anything,” Caddy said.

“She went to the tree.”

“Put me up,” Versh.

“Your paw told you to stay out that tree,” Versh said.

“That was a long time ago,” Caddy said,

“I except he’s forgotten about it, besides he said to mind me tonight. Didn’t he say to mind me tonight?”

“I’m not going to mind you, T .P and Frony are not going to either,” Jason said.[12]4

The children in this conversation turn out to be totally different between T.P, Frony, Versh and Caddy, Jason. The dialogue of the first three people has some characters of Black English. For example, “be” in the sentence “I (am) skeered (that) I (am ) going to holler” which is the distinct signal of Black English. On the contrary, the conversation of Candy and Jason do not omit this part as Jason says that “I’m not going to mind you，TP and Frony are not going to either”. And the singular verb of third person even does not have any difference with first person or any one else in the sentence “I know what I knows”. In addition, the mixture of // and // of the word “git” in the sentence “got on the box” is very common in Black English. It turns out that T.P, Frony and Versh are children of black in the farm, while Caddy and Jason are children of the farmer.

On the other hand, many black people like Frederick and William, not only struggle to learn the culture, but also use the pen as a weapon after the flight. They took active part in the abolitionist movement and expressed positive public opinions. Slave owner always treat Black people as the inferior race, so Black people’s ability to carry out literature itself is a powerful evidence of that lie, let alone the rich ideological content in their articles. And all of these proof that Black people is an excellent nation with a historical cultural tradition on the literature and their language also plays an irreplaceable role in the development of American literature.

4. The Practical Significance of Black English

In1863， 2 years before the war ended, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in the Confederate states. Shortly after the war ended in 1865, the thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution freed all slaves. A few years later, the fourteenth and fifteenth Amendments gave the former slaves full civil rights, including giving African-American men the right to vote.[13]77

In politics, more blacks are voting, and more are getting elected. Since 40 years ago, the Black middle-class group has risen from scratch and grown in their standard of living. There are no difference in professional skills and educational background with the white middle class. Outstanding representatives of Black people appear in many areas of the United States, such as the Black mayor, governor, ministers and members of Congress, and all of them are no longer surprise to us. The much more important thing is that Democratic candidate Barack Obama won the U.S. presidential election in 2008 to become the first real chance to win the presidency in the Black.

Blacks are also trying to improve their financial position by going into professions or starting their own business. There are now more than 600,000 black-owned companies in the U.S. and blacks are more numerous than ever in the professions-as teachers, doctors, lawyers, judges and ministers.

In 1952, Ralph Ellison, a black author, wrote a book about blacks in the U.S. called the Invisible Man. Since the 1960s, blacks have become more visible on TV and in movies and magazines. Networks, filmmakers and advertisers now realize that black consumers want to see their race represented. Today, blacks in significant numbers work as newscasters, TV actors and actresses, and movie stars.

Huang Weifeng says in his African American English on a Number of Historical Issues that, “Only when the racism in American society has been completely eradicated from the mind, the Black Cultural expressions of Black English can really be recognized.”81

5. Conclusion

“Black English” is widely used as the name because it is used by Black people. In fact, its user of this language is far beyond our imagination. In addition to the external community in the black population, it is also used by lower middle and low classes in America. It has profound impacts on American culture and communication in various aspects, especially with the continuous improvement of their political, economic and cultural status, and Black English has been paid more and more attention. In view of this, the paper starts to explore the formation and characteristics of its existence and development. It is said that the view of helping people understand the Black Culture correctly, the concept of eliminating the racial discrimination and enhancing the awareness to protect national culture plays an important role to cultural exchanges and cultural diversity.

The above discussion of Black English is by no means comprehensive but it can serve our purpose to improve the regulation and state of Black English. The significance of studying the nature of Black English is really multifaceted. While the most direct one is the significance for lingu istic research. The attitude to the question that whether Black English is a dialect or a language determines the methods of research. This paper argues that Black English is essentially a separate system and its significance to the American Culture. It should be researched as an independent study of language. [17]34

Undoubtedly, the Black English makes Black people more dramatic in the movies. The syntax rules and special vocabulary of Black English, which are incompatible with the mainstream of English, become the foundation of their culture with their bold dance and passive music. Although most black people using Black English live in the southern United States and the countries, those well-educated middle-class blacks also use Black English in some informal gatherings.

With the black music, novels and movies continuously mix into the mainstream of American society, the syntax rules and special vocabulary of Black English begin to be accepted by American English and become parts of the American culture. Because of the worldwide spread of English and increasingly prosperous Black Culture, the Black English will be more widely active in screen as a mature variation of English and an important way to display the diverse culture of the United States.

Acknowledgements

My initial thanks go to my tutor, Wu Qing, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.

I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books.

       My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.

The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.

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[13] 张卫平. 美国制度与文化[M]. 中国人民大学出版社, 2006.

[14] 黄卫峰. 对现代英语词汇学的两处质疑[J]. 云梦学刊, 2003.

[15] 侯维瑞. 英国英语与美国英语[M]. 上海外语教育出版社, 1992.

[16] 张卫平. 美国制度与文化[M]. 中国人民大学出版社, 2006.

[17] 葛咏涛. 美国文化风云人物[M]. 四川大学出版, 2007.

 

诚 信 承 诺

我谨在此承诺：本人所写的毕业论文《论黑人英语对美国文化的影响及其现实意义》均系本人独立完成，没有抄袭行为，凡涉及其他作者的观点和材料，均作了注释，若有不实，后果由本人承担。

 

篇（2）

关键词： 论文标题；经济学；体裁分析；对比研究；二语写作

Key words： research article titles; economics; genre analysis; contrastive analysis; second language writing

中图分类号：G23文献标识码：A文章编号：1006-4311（2011）18-0304-03

0引言

近十余年来，随着对学术语篇研究的兴起，语言学家越来越重视体裁分析方法在这一领域的应用，并形成了以John Swales （1990） 为代表的语步分析法，其对学术语篇前言进行了实证研究提出了CARS Model。随后引发了学者们的浓厚兴趣，他们将注意力集中于学术语篇的不同部分，例如，Lores （2004）和Martin（2003）研究了学术语篇的摘要部分，Homes（1997）研究了学术论文讨论部分，Yang和Allison （2003）研究了学术论文的结论部分，等等。本文将针对学术论文的标题部分进行对比研究，其方法也是体裁分的实证研究方法，目的在于发现国内外经济学期刊英语标题的结构特点，并能够对中国学者撰写英语标题提供参考。

1学术论文标题研究综述

80年代末以来，以“体裁分析之父”（Pérez-Llantada， 2004：140）John Swales （1990） 为代表的体裁分析法（genre analysis）的研究范式逐渐确立其在学术语篇的语言学研究中的地位。在1990年，John Swales 指出标题是学术体裁研究中被忽视的一个方面之一。随着学者们对标题研究的关注与日俱增，研究成果不断涌现。Yitzhaki （1997）比较了18种不同人文学科期刊的论文标题中的实词数量目的在于检验学术论文标题的信息密集性。Busch-Lauer (2000) 分别对比了医学和语言学领域内的英语和德语标题，发现医学领域内的标题长度比语言学内的论文标题的字数明显要多一些，并且确证了以德语为母语的学者习惯于用德语的思维方式撰写标题，同时发现了所有的标题在两个领域内的作用都是交际功能的作用。Laurence Anthony（2001）通过对计算机领域期刊中600个论文标题的长度，标点使用，介词使用和词频进行了研究，结果表明，计算机学科的论文标题有其自身的特点，例如，他发现介词和冠词在此类标题中出现的频率最高，其中介词for在所选的6种期刊中的4种当中出现的频率最高。最终得出的结论是计算机科学领域内的标题有其自身的特点，但是同时也提出，论文标题的特点因学科不同而有差异，这样的普遍性结论有待进一步的研究。随后在2002年Yitzhaki又研究了24个重要期刊的论文标题与论文长度的关系，同时做了历时比较的研究，发现文章长度和论文标题长度的关系是因科学类别的不同而不同，在所谓“硬”科学内标题长度与文章长度的相关性较“软”科学更强。Haggan （2004）则是同时分别比较研究了文学，语言学和理科科学的论文标题的结构特点。她将标题按形式分为句子型，名词型和短语型三类。研究结果显示出三个不同领域内的标题都互不相同，各有特点，同时指出标题的功能在于引起读者阅读文章的兴趣。Hartley （2005c，2007a，2007b）从不同方面探讨了论文标题的特点或功能：一、指出论文标题应当同时具有传递信息和吸引读者的作用；二、将论文标题按功能重新分类，共有12类并且分析了各类的特点和功能；三、研究了冒号在学术论文中的使用偏好。最近的研究是Soler （2007）对研究型学术论文和综述型学术论文的标题结构的实证研究。在570个标题中，480个为研究型论文标题，90个是综述型论文标题，时间跨度从1996年至2002年，涉及的学科领域是生物学和社会学，她将标题按结构分为句子型，问句型，名词词组型和复合型，同时还对标题的长度进行了研究，结果表明，综述型标题的长度在两个领域都非常的短，复合型标题是社会科学体裁研究型论文标题的特点。句子型标题是研究型论文标题的文章类型的特点，尤其是生物学领域内的研究型论文标题的特点。

国内的标题研究主要分为两类：汉英单语种独立研究和汉语标题的英译。例如王英格（1993）研究了英语学术论文标题的语法和修辞特点。化柏林（2007）对图书情报学类核心期刊论文标题进行了计量研究，共对42989篇文献的标题进行统计分析，涉及到标题长度，句型以及标题中相关词汇的研究，如题首词，题尾词，关键词等。而论文标题的汉英翻译的研究有，段萍和顾维萍（2002）的关于医学论文的标题和摘要的汉译英的常见错误的分析的研究，周永模（2002）的关于哲学和人文社会科学的论文标题的汉译英的标准的探讨。另外，值得一提的是王成宇（2003）对英汉双语的疑问型学术论文标题进行的对比研究。

综上所述，学术论文的标题研究成果逐渐丰硕，本文将就前人的研究成果继续深化和推进学术论文标题的研究，基本的研究思路是以体裁为切入点，即语言学类研究型学术论文；英英对比，其特点在于中国学者的英文标题和国际学者的英文标题的对比；以及采用实证研究方法。

2研究方法

首先本文选取了中美经济学两本在各自学术共同体中的权威期刊：中国的《经济学（季刊）》（China Economic Quarterly (CEQ)）和美国麻省理工学院（MIT）的Quarterly Journal of Economics (QJE)。建立了一个含有548个英语科研原创论文标题的语料库，其中CEQ 中随机选取311 个标题，QJE 中随机选取237个标题。按照语料库的建库原则以及对比语言学的可比性原则，标题的选取时间跨度为2004至2009年（由于研究时间限制，2009年只收集部分标题），且不包括书评类以及其他体裁类型的文章标题。其次本文将所选标题分为五大类：名词词组型（Noun Phrase [NP]）, 复合型（Compound [CP]）即一个标题由两部分组成，中间被冒号或其他符号隔开, 句子型（Full-sentence [FS]）, 动词词组型（Verbal Phrase [VP]）, 以及介词词组型（Prepositional Phrase [PP]）。另外，本文还进一步细分了名词词组型标题和复合型标题，同时还统计了本语料库中的NP和CP标题在近五年内(2004-2008)的变化趋势。

3研究结果与讨论

标题应当体现信息性和经济性原则。信息性是指标题应当全面准确反映论文的内容。经济性是指标题应当用最少的词表达最丰富的意义。表1显示了两本期刊英语标题的平均长度。明显的差异在于国内的CEQ论文标题要比国外的QJE论文标题用词偏长。就其原因在于英语不是中国人的母语，并且中国学者在撰写英语论文标题时会受到中国文化的影响（Connor， 1996）。另外，无论CEQ论文标题是出于投稿人的翻译或重新用英语撰写，都会受到原来汉语标题的影响，我们的统计发现，汉语标题会经常出现“论”、“研究”以及“探讨”之类的标题标记（尹世超，2001）。同时，国内学者撰写的英语论文标题会将这类标记词翻译出来形成“The study of …” 或“The analysis of …”之类表达形式。这无形中会增加英语标题的长度而不会因此增加标题的信息含量。

标题的功能有四种（尹世超，2001）：称名功能，概括功能，吸引功能和引导功能。如果综合考虑标题的两个原则和四个功能，那么复合型标题是最理想的标题形式。表2的复合型标题频度百分比正好体现了这一选择在英语环境下的要求。按照Swales和Feak（1994）的观点此类标题（英语）的构成为：问题-解决（problem-solution），一般-详细（general-specific），话题-方法（topic-method）和主要-次要（major-minor）。这一构成就能够是撰写者不通过语言手段而在两部分之间建立联系，达到信息性、经济性和吸引功能的统一。由于标题的基本功能是称名功能所以名词词组型标题在两本期刊中都占有较多的频度。有趣的发现是，美国的QJE期刊论文标题出现了较多的句子型标题，共15个占该期刊语料的6.33%，以及较多的动词词组型标题，共8个占该期刊语料的3.38%。

两本期刊使用最多的名词词组型标题都是NP+PP结构，即一个核心名词后接一个介词短语的结构。但是，相比较而言，CEQ期刊论文NP标题的结构相对较复杂。这一点似乎验证了Connor（1996）的观点，写作是一种深嵌于文化的行为。即国内学者撰写英语论文标题时，会采用复杂的介词短语限定讨论话题的形式，而国外学者会直接采用其他策略比如说采用CP型标题结构。这同时似乎也表明非母语写作者会在使用第二外语时无意识的会凸显过滤某些文化因素，这些因素会表现在语言层面，比如说，复杂的介词短语结构标题。

在标题具有称名这一点上，中美期刊论文撰写者又一次达成一致，即标题的前后两部分都是名词词组结构[NP:NP]。但是QJE期刊CP论文标题并不仅仅是依赖这一结构，作为美国学术共同体的研究者，他们会更多关注英语标题的其他功能如吸引功能，所以该类标题在QJE中呈现出较多的其他次级结构，如Q:NP[问句：名词词组]型。本语料库中，最强烈的对比在于，QJE中会出现PP:NP类型标题和Q:Q类型标题，而CEQ中却无此类型标题出现；另外，在CEQ中会出现PP:NP和Q:VP类型标题，但是在QJE中，撰写者不会才取此类型去撰写标题。此现象有待于进一步的大规模的语料收集和分析。

从上图可以看出，NP和CP标题在五类标题中在近五年内呈增加趋势。有趣的发现是，CP标题在两本期刊中在2007年增至最多，相反的NP标题在两本期刊中减至最少。相对于2007年来说，两本期刊中的CP标题在2008年有所减少，而NP标题有所增加。最终的结果表明，经济学类期刊英语论文标题NP和CP类型出现的频度趋近于相同，但总体呈增加态势。

4结论

本研究表明经济学类中美两本期刊的英语论文标题存在明显差异。这些差异是由于文化社会因素造成。本研究的意义在于为经济学类同行撰写英语论文标题提供帮助。进一步的研究可细致深入地探讨经济学类英语论文标题的用词特点。

参考文献：

[1]Anthony L. 2001. Characteristic Features of Research Article Titles in Computer Science [J]. I.E.E.E. Transactions on Professional Communication, 44(3): 187-194.

[2]Busch-Lauer, Ines-A. 2000. “Titles of English and German Research Papers in Medicine and Linguistics Theses and Research Articles” [M]. Analysing Professional Genres, (Edited by Anna Trosborg), Benjamins Publishing Company, 2000.

[3]Connor, U. 1996. Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross-cultural aspects of second-language writing [M]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

[4]Dillon, J. T. 1980. In pursuit of the colon: a century of scholarly progress: 1880-1980 [J]. Journal of Higher Education, 53 (1): 93-99.

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[6]Halliday, M. A. K. 1994. Introduction to Functional Grammar, Second Edition [M]. London: Edward Arnold.

[7]Hartley, J. 2005. To Attract or To Inform: What Are Titles For? [J].Journal of Technical Writing. and Communication, 32(2): 203-213.

[8]Hartley, J.. 2007a. Planning that title: practices and preferences for titles with colons in academic articles [J]. Library & Information Science Research, 29: 553-568.

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[13]Soler, V.. 2007. Writing titles in science: An exploratory study [J]. English for Specific Purposes, 26(1): 90-102.

[14]Swales, J. M.. 1990. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings [M]. New York, Cambridge: CUP.

[15]Swales, J. M. 2004. Research Genres: Explorations and Applications [M]. New York: Cambridge: CUP.

[16]Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. 1994. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Commentary [M]. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

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[20]化柏林.图书情报学核心期刊论文标题计量分析研究[J].情报学报，2007，26(3).

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篇（3）

在课堂上，本人情绪饱满，充满激情，声音洪亮清晰，授课时语音语调起伏变化，肢体语言丰富。不仅让学生集中注意力，提高学习效率而且善于引导学生情绪，调动其积极性，使学生在课堂上更加投入。 本着外语学院“听说领先教学法"，“任务驱动教学法”和“交际教学法”的原则，本人上课时候特别注意师生互动和联系实际。经常组织小组讨论，鼓励学生独立发言，力求学生参与度达到100%。如在听力教学中，每次课前布置教学任务，课上进行检测，技巧讲解中及时穿插听力训练，对于听力过程中出现的生词让学生自己课前自查， 课上朗读并解释意思，老师给与必要指导，及时总结规律。在文学教学中，将电影片段，神话故事，图片等与选段词汇结合起来，让学生既扩大词汇，同时又感受到学习的乐趣。同时在进行选段分析时，尽量拓展学生的思维，将文章主题与相关社会现象和文化结合起来，组织学生围绕社会问题进行讨论，并给与一定的指导，力求帮助学生树立良好的社会价值观。如学习罗素的《我为什么而活》， 给学生放映《活着》片段，让学生结合社会现实探讨人为什么而活，以及读书到底有什么用。学习《傲慢与偏见》时，要求学生先了解作者的婚姻观，并结合《蜗居》，引导学生树立正确的婚姻观。

课堂上本人是富有激情且严谨的老师，课后是学生亲切、知心的朋友。学生们都喜欢在课堂外与我聊天，交流学习和生活心得。本人也总是及时获取学生信息，获取教学反馈，并及时更新教学计划。比如，06级毕业班同学在上了三周课后， 有部分学生要求将教学重心转到专业八级的辅导上， 本人于是对所有三个班学生展开了问卷调查，结果显示99%的学生希望老师能讲解专八知识。虽然觉得学生有些短视，本人还是及时调整了教学计划，花了大量时间搜集专八人文知识资料并自编了英、美国文学串讲资料。在听力测验和专八知识自测中，发现有个别学生因成绩不理想而情绪低落，还有的个别学生有偏激和消极的想法，本人及时开导和鼓励他们振作起来。对个别学生进行学习方法上的单独辅导，或者给他们布置适当的额外学习任务。

本人坚信：教师不能只是教书匠，更应该是学生成长过程中的扶持者和引导者。无论是校外还是校内，无论是课堂内还是课堂外， 教师都要通过各种方式来帮助和激励学生，促使学生养成主动式、探究式和合作式学习习惯，从而获得学业成功、就业成功和未来的事业成功。

二、在搞好教育教学实践的同时，教师必须非常重视专业理论的学习和教学经验的总结，力争在科研上多出成果。

本人很荣幸获得外语学院李道顺院长的青睐， 被院长收为科研指导对象， 李院长成为本人的科研导师。本人虚心求教， 积极向上，追求进步，经常与李院长就科研工作进行相关交流与学习，受益颇多。本人积极发挥外语学院科研骨干的带头作用，经常与同事就论文撰写和教材编写进行交流。作为外语学院精品课程研究小组成员，积极讨论精品课程的建设问题，了解课程建设对科研的指导作用。

本人积极向本校科研十佳工作者学习，努力钻研科研方法，力争在科研上赶上并超越他们。 科研突飞猛进。 本学期共发表了9篇论文，其中《成功素质教育下综合英语精品课程建设探究》等3篇文章发表在《山东文学》、《时代文学》和《大家》北大核心期刊上； 论文《改革专业英语考试模式推进成功素质教育》发表在国家一级教育类权威期刊《中国校外教育》上；其他文章大都为本科学报论文如《湖北大学成人教育学院学报》、《湖北广播电视大学学报》 、《潍坊教育学院学报》、《赤峰学院学报》等；本人还了解了国际4大检索论文的撰写知识和投稿指南， 撰写了2篇高水平的全英语论文， 并投稿相关国际会议， 成功通过审稿，将分别于2010年6月和8月见刊，并将被EI 和ISTP 双检索。同时参与了3部英语专业本科教材的编写，分别是《大学英语写作教程》，该书已经付梓， 另2部《大学英语口语教程》 （第二册和第四册）正在编写中。

篇（4）

中图分类号：G424 文献标识码：A

1 商务英语概况

商务英语是以英语为载体商务知识为核心的一种专门用途英语（English for Specific Purposes 即 ESP）。本文拟对对外经济贸易大学和广大外语外贸大学商务英语专业人才培养模式差异性进行比较，希望通过比较能对商务英语专业设置合理的培养方案提供一些参考

2 差异性比较

2.1 培养目标差异性比较

（1） 培养目标。

对外经济贸易大学：本专业旨在培养具有扎实的英语知识和技能，掌握较宽广的人文与社会科学以及国际商务基础理论知识，具有较强的跨文化交流能力，适应各类企事业单位从事国际商务活动需要的高素质专门人才。

广东外语外贸大学：培养具有扎实的英语语言基础、娴熟的英语交际能力、良好的文化素养、系统的商务知识、宽阔的国际视野、善于跨文化交际，适应经济全球化竞争，能胜任国际商务管理、国际贸易、国际金融等部门工作的国际商务专业人才。

（2） 具体要求。

对外经济贸易大学：①掌握扎实的英语知识与技能。②掌握国际商务基本理论，熟悉国际贸易相关专业知识和政策法规。③必须选修一门第二外语且达到学校要求的学习标准。④掌握比较宽广的中西方政治、经济、历史、文化知识。⑤熟练掌握必要的计算机应用技能。⑥掌握获取专业学术信息的科学方法，具备独立从事英语研究的基本能力。

广东外语外贸大学：①具有扎实的英语语言基础和熟练的听、说、读、写、译能力，通过英语专业八级考试。②熟悉英语国家文化，具备较强的跨文化商务交际能力。③系统掌握国际商务的基本知识和技能。④具有第二外国语的初步应用能力。⑤掌握文献检索、资料查询的基本方法，具有初步科学研究能力，用英语撰写与国际商务相关的毕业论文。

可以看出，两所学校在培养目标和具体要求上都大同小异，都强调了对学生语言技能，商务知识，跨文化交际能力和二外水平的培养。

2.2 课程设置比较

英语语言类课程：北京对外经济贸易大学：56%， 广东外语外贸大学63%。

英语文化类课程：北京对外经济贸易大学：17%， 广东外语外贸大学8%。

商务类课程：北京对外经济贸易大学：27%， 广东外语外贸大学29%。

（1） 英语语言类课程。

北京对外经济贸易大学：综合英语、 英语听说、 英语语音、 阅读指导、 英语写作、 第二外语、语言学导论（英）、 传意学导（英）、 英语文体学、英语公众演讲、 交替口译（一）（英）、英语论文写作、高级商务英语听说、商务英语写作。

广东外语外贸大学：综合英语、商务英语、英语写作、商务英语 写作、高级英语阅读与写作、高级英语阅读与写作、英语听力、英语口语、商务英语听说、英汉口译、英汉笔译。

（2） 英语文化类课程。

北京对外经济贸易大学：英美文学导论（英）、欧洲文化（英）、 美国文化（英）、欧美戏剧鉴赏（英）、散文（下转第165页）（上接第147页）分析、跨文化交际导论（英）、个人商务交际技能（英） 、 跨文化商务交流（英）。

广东外语外贸大学：英语国家社会与文化、英美文学和跨文化商务交际。

（3）商务类课程（略）。

可以看出，两所学校在英语语言类和文化类课程比例上差异性较大，笔者认为这种差异受地域性特征影响。北京作为政治文化中心，相应加重了英语文化课程培养学生的跨文化交际能力。而广东外语外贸大学坐落于国际贸易中心广东省，在商务英语专业下细分为四个方向，以服务于国际贸易不同需求。

2.3 师资结构比较

2008年，对外经贸英语学院成功申报了商务英语国家级教学团队，教学主要围绕语言技能、商务知识、跨文化交流、人文素养四大模块展开。

而广东外语外贸大学商务英语学院设有五个研究中心，分别为商务翻译研究中心，法律语言学研究中心，商务英语研究中心，国际商务研究中心以及跨文化商务研究中心，约有1/3的既掌握语言又掌握商科知识的复合型教师。

3 加强高校商务英语专业建设的一些思考

面对这种新的复合型人才需求形式，高校商务英语专业要找到合适的专业定位，逐步改善目前的专业建设情况。

3.1 培养模式市场化

商务英语专业培养模式应以市场为导向，结合地方经济文化的特性。通过本文对对外经贸和广东外语外贸大学比较也可以看出两所高校在培养模式上地域性差异特征。

3.2 人才国际化

从对外经贸和广东外语外贸大学培养目标可以看出，商务英语专业作为服务于全球化和国际化的应用型学科，更应以培养国际化人才为目标，加强学生外语水平，计算机应用能力和专业知识等硬件方面的培养，也应注重学生国际视野，人文素养，人际交往等方面的教育。

3.3 课程系统化

专业课程体系是教学计划的主要内容，也是应用型人才培养的关键。商务英语专业课程设置上要合理处理语言类课程和商务类课程关系，学生知识结构和能力培养的关系。笔者认为商务英语专业课程设置应包括语技能，商务知识，跨文化交流，人文素养，计算机及实习课程等方面内容。

3.4 教学案例化

作为哈佛商学院MBA教学的代名词，案例教学化在我国也得到不断应用和推广。案例教学法对加强商务英语教学的实用性和实践性，培养学生的交际能力和实际解决问题的能力都具有重大的指导意义。

3.5 教师复合化

篇（5）

四六级考试在之前大学生英语水平较低的情况下，确实促进了大学英语教学的发展，推动了大学生英语水平的普遍提高。但是随着现在中小学阶段英语教学水平的不断提升与投入的不断加大，四六级考试严重地阻碍了大学英语向学生提出的更高的英语能力要求，阻碍了通用英语向学术英语（EAP）或专门用途英语（ESP）转移的进程。虽然其推动了大学基础英语教学的发展，并使之长盛不衰，但同时阻碍了大学朝专业英语教学转移和发展的进程。

大学英语四六级考试顺应潮流，修订目标定位，其意义是极其深远的。这一举措表明，一个硬性的、统一的教学要求时代的结束，以及一个强调个性化和多元化的后大学英语教学时代的到来（蔡基刚，2007）。

2.大学英语四、六级及大学英语教学面临的挑战

一个如此大规模的考试，在长达26年的时间内稳定发展，这一基本事实证明大学英语四六级考试适应了社会的需要，得到了社会的普遍认同，产生了良好的社会效益，也为我国大学英语教学质量的提高作出了巨大的贡献。

然而，在当今大学生英语水平不断提高，社会和学科不断发展变化的情况下，必须对其重新定位。根据2003年教育部基础教育司颁布的普通高中英语课程标准，其中规定了今后高中毕业生必须达到的七级标准和进一步提高英语综合语言运用能力的八级与九级标准，“八级”词汇量要求在3300字左右，优秀高中毕业生要达到九级水平，词汇量为4500；2004年教育部高教司制定了大学英语教学基本要求（试行），核心就是突出听说能力的培养和推动基于多媒体的大学英语教学模式，大学四级考试是检测学生达到大学英语课程“一般要求”的考试，词汇量要求在4500字左右，六级考试是大学英语“较高要求”的测试。高中课程和大学英语课程重复率高，很多词汇、语法都是高中学过的东西，大学英语受到中学英语和英语专业的双面夹击，必须寻求新的出路。因此，服务于大学英语教学的四六级考试也应随之改革。

2.1大学英语教学改革新方向

英语水平是构成大学生综合素质的重要方面之一。大学英语是高等学校非英语专业大学生必修的一门基础课程，是基础教学课程体系中重要的核心课程。大学英语课程的教学质量直接关系到高等学校学生的总体培养质量，传统意义上的大学英语指的就是基础英语教学。

目前许多名校，如清华北大已经取消了大学英语课程的开设。学生认为英语基础已经在中学阶段打好，开设基础英语课程等于重学高中阶段学习过的知识。因此，把目标转为注重学生学术英语能力培养，为专业化国际交流提供支撑。这一改革适应了专业院系和学生的需求，得到了学校的支持。香港高校的大学英语教学目标非常明确，他们的目的是帮助学生获得学术英语能力，以适应专业学习和未来工作的需要。由于目前香港高校新生的英语水平离这样的课程目标还有较大距离，他们就需要学习在中学里没有学过的EAP课程。内地高校大学英语教学目标含糊，学生和学校只能把四六级考试作为学习的终极目标。由于这个目标在新生英语水平不断提高的背景下，可以在越来越短的时间甚至零时间里实现，这样学分的压缩和课程的萎缩自然不可避免。因此，大学英语应该借鉴香港及国外的先进经验，才能适应时代的发展。

我国幅员广阔，各地区、各大学的教师整体水平和生源状况存在差别，国家和地方对不同类型高校的投入不一样，学生的学习条件也不尽相同。对于一些入学英语基础比较差、基本的听说读写能力都不具备的学生，大学英语教学还是十分必要的。这就需要各个高校在学生大一期间就要确定学生的水平，判断学生是否需要修完四个学期的大学英语必修课程。对于那些基础已经达到一般要求的学生，即通过四级的学生，可以根据自身水平，给学生开设相关的专业英语或实用英语课程。

大学生学习英语的目的应该是了解专业前沿的国际发展，增强在科学技术上的学术竞争力。真正符合大学英语教学改革要“切实提高大学生的专业英语水平和直接使用英语从事科研的能力”。了解国际前沿的前提应该是先打好基础，这就要靠大学英语即通用英语打基础。

2.2四、六级考试面临的问题

鉴于四、六级考试在社会上的认可度，英语成绩较差的大学生把大部分时间都花在英语的学习上，通过大学英语四级考试必须奋斗整个四年；成绩好的学生为准备其他各类英语考试，也奋斗了整个四年。这种学习热情的错位，极大地影响了他们的专业学习，违背了大学教学的真正目的。

此外，作为一项重要的教学评估手段，其对教学等方面产生的巨大影响已为大家所公认。很多同学通过四、六级考试后就沾沾自喜，从此放弃了英语学习。根据对武汉当地大学一些学生的调查，学生反映：“通过了四级、六级考试，自己觉得是英语高手。但碰到英文文章，心中顿时务实起来，通篇都是生词，一小时只能看几行。写的英语论文，外国人看不懂。学了一些日常口语，但跟老外交流胆怯。学校中实际生活如上机房、做实验、选课、搞课题研究都不会说。”笔者亲历的湖北省众多高校的一线老师们的意见也不比学生少：学生四、六级考试过关之后，英文文献读不了，英文论文写得一塌糊涂，未能实现与国际社会接轨的大学人才培养目标。

四、六级考试的重要性，引发了一系列问题，大学英语教学成为应试教育，社会上的不法分子为了获利，制造作弊器，销售四、六级答案，很多高校把四、六级通过率当做衡量教学的唯一标准。四、六级在不断改革，2005年从以前的100分满分值改为710分满分，大大增加了听力的分值比例，把听说交际能力放在了重要位置。2012年12月新推出的多题多卷，有效防止了作弊现象，其还有待进一步改革，服务于大学英语教学，保障其效度跟信度。

四、六级考试应该反自身的优缺点，不断进行改革，适应时代的需求，为更好地服务大学英语教学提供支持。讨论大学英语四、六级考试通用英语定位还是学术英语定位，不论是对于挽救考试本身，还是对于促进我国大学英语健康发展，都有很深刻的理论意义和现实意义。

3.改革措施与建议

3.1借鉴国外先进经验

大学英语四、六级考试应当与国际先进做法接轨，不断改进技术手段，引入计算机网络化的考试技术，使考试更具科学性和准确性。网考有很多优点：（1）可以借助多媒体模拟更真实的交际场景，使测试由静态变为动态，使英语的使用更加接近生活。（2）可以节省资源，降低印卷、运输、分发、保管等方面的工作强度。（3）网考具有测验周期短的特点，能够增加每年考试的次数，同时实现一人一卷模式，有效防止考前泄题或考试过程中的作弊行为，提高考试的安全性。

美国教育服务中心（ETS）推行的托福考试是针对留学生的学术英语水平考试，是一场职场英语的水平考试。雅思考试由英国文化协会、剑桥大学考试局及澳大利亚国际教育发展署共同主办。雅思分学术类和普通类两种题型，学术类主要适合留学，普通类主要适合移民。鉴于此，国内的CET要想长远地立足于国际社会，也要开发自己的独特测试种类。比如当下流行的检测学生基础英语水平的大学公共英语考试，也要服务于专门英语（EPS）教学，为EPS开辟新的测试。

3.2课程设置

大学英语教学应该改变传统的所有本科生都进行四个学期的大学英语必修课的局面，压缩大学英语的学分，将其用来开设专门用途英语和学术英语，由学生根据自己的需要和专业需求选择，取消综合英语（或叫大学英语）这个由精读演变而来的传统课程，代之以1～2个学分的、比较专项的阅读、听力、口语、写作、语法等小课程。

3.3教师层面

大学英语教师应该接受培训，为开设各个专业的学科英语做准备。同时控制从英语专业的硕士生或博士生中招聘单纯为上大学基础英语课的教师。教学管理者和课程规划者只有充分了解本校学习者的外语学习需求，才能对课程进行合理设置，制订出适合本校学生的英语教学改革方案和教学模式，因需施教，收效才更直接可观，才更有利于提高英语教学水平。

将英语教学的重心逐渐从大学下移至中小学，为大学生学英语减负，使之有更多时间学好专业，努力创新。分管大学和中小学外语教学的教育部门有必要相互协调配合，制订规划，加速这一进程。中小学是学好英语最重要的阶段，是英语教学杠杆的支点，最需要优秀的英语教师，最需要教育部门的重视，最需要国家投入，投入的效益也最高。

3.4政府层面

加大中小学英语教师的培训力度。国家增加投入，派遣英语教师出国学习，或聘请外语教学专家培训英语教师，提高外语教学理论水平和英语运用能力，让教师明白外语是怎样学会的，知道怎样教，自觉抵制应试教育。多邀请英语国家的大中小学生来华与我国学生交流互动，创造英语学习环境，让我国学生体验英语的真实使用。

篇（6）

随着Internet技术的迅猛发展，经济全球化和教育国际化进程不断加快，中国高等教育面临着新的机遇和挑战。中国加入WTO及北京2008奥运会的举行，促进了中外交流活动日益频繁。如何培养新时期需要的复合型(专业+外语、知识+技能)人才，成为高等教育的首要任务。旅游高等教育以培养高级旅游涉外管理人才为主要目的，这些人才诸如导游、接待服务人员不仅要具备扎实的专业基础知识，又要了解国内外旅游业发展现状，而且还要能够用英语思维直接与外国游客进行交流并提供优质服务，树立良好的形象。这给旅游高等教育人才培养的内涵提出了更高的要求。而双语教学集专业学习、英语学习为一体，在此方面发挥着巨大的作用。如何在旅游高等教育中实施双语教学成为当前众多旅游教育者关注的热点问题之一。本文就旅游高等教育实施双语教学中的教材选择、师资配备、学生需求、教学方法与教学模式等方面进行探讨，以期为旅游高等教育实施双语教学的进一步开展指明方向。

一、双语教学及其含义

双语教学(BilingualTeaching)，根据英国《朗文应用语言学词典》的定义:The use of a second or foreign language in school for the teaching of content subjects，意思是在学校里使用第二语言或者外语进行学科的教学。卡明斯(Cummins)对其进一步解释:“在学生教育生涯的某一阶段使用两种(或者更多)教学媒介语。这两种语言被用来教授科目内容而不单纯是语言课程本身”[1]。随着文化交流的扩展与深入，英语已成为当今世界通用语言，当前我国的双语教学主要是指用英语作为专业教学的媒介。

双语教学是将外语直接应用于语言学科以外的其他学科的教学，通过用外语学习其他学科知识达到掌握外语的目的，使外语学习与专业学科知识的获取同步。它不同于英语专业教学，英语专业教学侧重对英语语言本身的学习，包括词汇、语法、修辞等，强调对语言本身的学习，很少涉及其他非语言学科的专业课知识，主要培养英语语言理论和应用人才。专业课双语教学只把英语作为教学媒介，侧重对专业知识的系统讲解，不强调学习英语本身，以培养非英语学科的人才为主。因此，双语教学课堂绝非英语教学课堂。

二、旅游高等教育实施双语教学的必要性

1.开展双语教学是旅游院校教学改革的需要

国家教育部在2001年出台了第四号文件《关于加强高等学校本科教学工作提高教学质量的若干意见》，毕业论文 明确要求各高等院校在3年内要开设5%-10%的“双语”教学课程，特别是一些国际通用性、可比性强的专业和学科应尽快与国际接轨。时至今日，各高等院校相继进行了双语教学的探索、研究和实践。由于旅游活动具有很强的文化性、实践性和涉外性，旅游高等教育更要首当其冲。面对新时期的机遇和挑战，新型的旅游人才不仅要精通旅游专业知识和汉语文化，还要通晓外语、熟悉外国文化、适应国际竞争的需要。双语教学把培养学生的语言能力和专业技能合二为一，是培养旅游高级复合型人才的有效方法，也是我国高等教育实现从“量的扩张”到“质的提升”的有效途径。随着高校教学改革的推进，有些高校将取消专业英语课程，而增开双语教学科目。双语教学已成为衡量本科教育水平，突出高校办学特色，进行教学改革的重要举措。因此，双语教学是目前教育教学改革研究的需要。

2.实施双语教学是旅游学科和旅游教育发展的需要

旅游学是一门新兴的综合性学科，最先出现于西方发达的欧美国家，这些国家无论是旅游学科体系的建设，还是旅游教育都相对成熟，研究成果硕果累累;而我国旅游学的发展始于20世纪80年代，与之相比还比较落后。因此，需要借鉴国外经验。新型的旅游人才不仅要具有竞争能力、创新能力、交际能力，而且还要具备不断获取信息和处理信息的自学能力。旅游高等教育人才不仅要让学生及时了解国内旅游最新动态、发展趋势，同时也要及时了解国外相关状况，以更好的适应国际社会竞争的需要。双语教学为学生构筑了一个国际化的平台，使学生更多地了解客源地文化背景、价值观念、思维模式，学生以国际化的视野来思考问题，凭借语言优势，能更直接、更迅速地把握学科、行业最新的发展态势，开拓视野、拓宽旅游知识，发展专业技能，借鉴国外旅游业发展的成功经验，更好地认识、解决本国旅游发展所出现的问题。因此，双语教学是沟通旅游专业人才所需理论、语言和技能的一座桥梁，是完善旅游学科的发展和旅游教育人才培养的有效途径。

3.实施双语教学是提高学生技能和提升就业率的需要

传统的旅游教育模式将专业教育和语言教育相分离，使旅游高等教育在相当程度上无法满足行业发展对双语人才的需求。旅游人才，尤其是占到35%的旅游各专业本科层次的毕业生，因为语言能力和跨文化交流能力的约束，在一定程度上出现了职业生涯的落差，导致旅游人才的流失[3]，从而造成旅游本科生就业率较低，生源不足等一系列问题。双语教学为学生提供了良好的外语交际环境，在某种程度上势必增加学生学习外语的压力和动力，有效提高学生的英语水平，在求职就业方面占有竞争优势。实践证明，双语教学不仅能帮助学生巩固已学的英语知识，增加专业词汇量，还能满足其强烈的求知欲望，激发学生学习专业知识的积极性，使学生能积极借助外文书刊和网络及时了解旅游业的最新学术动态，提高学生的专业技能。

4.实施双语教学是提高教师队伍素质的需要

新时期的要求不仅对高等教育、学生提出了更高的要求，同时也对旅游专业的师资队伍提出了更高的要求。随着我国教育国际交流的日趋频繁，国内外大学之间的学术交流及其他领域的合作不断加深与扩展，各国互派教师访学，要求教师不仅懂外语，还能用外语进行学术交流。我国目前高校的旅游专业的青年教师大多具有硕士及以上学位，具有六级英语水平，如果在高校不开展双语教学，英语得不到再学习，就会导致英语水平逐步退化，客观上造成了一种人力资源的浪费。相反，通过双语教学，教师通过备课查阅外文文献资料，用双语授课及课外辅导，教学相长，不断积累英语知识和专业知识，使教师综合素质显著提高，适应教育国际化的要求。

三、旅游高等教育实施双语教学应注意的问题

1.选择适宜的双语教学学科

学科是双语教学实施的关键，它决定了双语教学的内容、方法及目标。根据旅游高等教育的特点及双语人才培养的目标，应选择实用性强、文化性强及基础性强的课程。医学论文 实用性即具备鲜明的实用特色，与旅游的实际工作紧密结合的课程，如《模拟导游》、《饭店管理》等。实施双语教学，既可将语言教学融入专业教学，又便于实践特色导入教学，有助于提高旅游高等教育专业人才培养的质量，充分实现双语教学的价值。文化特色既是课程注重对中国文化的对外传播，又注重对外国文化及其思维模式的把握，如《中国旅游文化》、《客源国概况》，这些课程导入双语教学，有利于培养学生运用两种语言思维的能力，更好地完成对外交流。为更好地达到双语教学的效果，还应开展一些基础课程，如《旅游学概论》、《旅游市场营销》等。双语教学积累一定的专业词汇，能够奠定理论和语言基础。

需要指出的是，双语教学科目并非越多越好，学科的选择应综合考虑教学大纲、师资水平、学生水平等因素，避免盲目上马，一哄而上。

2.确立适当的双语教学模式

双语教学有3种模式:沉浸型双语教学(学校使用一种不是学生在家使用的语言进行教学)、保持型双语教学(在学生刚进入学校时使用本族语，然后逐渐使用第二种语言进行教学，其他学科仍使用母语教学)、过渡型双语教学(学生进入学校以后部分或全部使用母语，然后逐步转变为只使用第二语言进行教学)。根据中国地质大学管理学院旅游系教学培养模式(“3+1”模式:学生在3年内修完大学本科的全部课程，最后一年到相关旅游企业进行实习)和学生的综合英语水平，我们采取了保持型双语教学模式和实践模式相结合，即:在专业培养计划中选定几门学科进行双语教学，同时结合毕业实习的实践，充分利用旅游企业、社会培训机构等大旅游教育环境，拓宽学生的语言摄入、演练环境，进而达到双语教学的目标。

3.采用灵活的双语教学方法

双语教学课堂不是老师按照中文讲义的逐字翻译，它的目标是提高学生用英语进行思维和表达的能力，必须强调课堂的互动性和学生学习的积极性。

因此，双语教学应确立以学生为中心的教学理念。老师应根据教学内容、学生水平适时采取多种教学方法。在双语教学实践中，笔者采用了如下的教学手段:在双语教学的初级阶段，学生的词汇量不大，英语水平不高，可以采用英语板书、汉语为主讲解的教学方式，提问法(Question)、练习法(Exercise)、多媒体(Multimedia)教学等是较好的教学方法;随着双语教学的延伸，学生英语水平不断提高，此时可采用以英语为主、英语思维的教学方式，讨论法(Discuss)、案例分析法(Case Analysis)、角色扮演法(Role-play)教学效果明显。

四、旅游高等教育导入双语教学的对策

双语教学对实现旅游高等教育的培养目标有着深远的意义，是目前解决“双语、双文、双能”的旅游复合型人才的有效途径之一，我国很多高校的旅游专业已开始了双语教学的初步研究和探索，但距教育部的目标，还有一定距离。究其原因，双语教学的开展还面临着诸多实际困难。

1.提高师资水平是实施双语教学的关键

双语教师必须具备扎实的双语知识(汉语和英语)，具备一定的双语教学理论知识和精深的学科专业知识。而目前我国旅游专业的双语教学面临师资严重不足，知识结构单一且整体水平不高。师资水平影响到整个双语教学水平和质量的高低。提高双语教学师资水平的途径有:

(1)加大双语教师的培养和培训力度。依托高校培养，开设培养双语师资的专业，为双语教学源源不断地输送双语人才，这是长远的解决办法。培训是短期解决师资的有效途径，双语教师的培训应注重整合高校资源，提倡院系之间的横向联合，可以从两个方面开展，一是对有良好专业基础的教师展开语言强化培训，二是对具有一定语言基础的教师开展旅游学科知识培训，从而建立一支跨学科、多层次的双语教学师资队伍。此外，也可选派中青年教师出国深造、参加学术交流，拓宽教师培训途径。

(2)引进旅游专业的外籍教师。聘请旅游专业学科具有一定汉语知识的外教。聘请外籍教师不仅能解决纯正的英语发音和独特的英语思维问题，同时也能把国外先进的旅游管理观念和知识带进课堂，提高学生的专业知识水平。

(3)校企联合，聘请兼职教师。目前，在我国旅游业及饭店管理业中，不乏一些高级管理人才，他们具备良好的英语技能和相当的工作经验，在双语教学中具有独特的优势。聘用兼职教师，实行专、兼职结合，校企联合也是解决我国旅游高等教育双语教学师资的有效方法。

2.激发学生学习兴趣是实施双语教学的基础

激发学生的学习兴趣，一方面需要老师饱含感情地进行教学，运用多种教学方法，开展教学内容丰富、交际形式多样、师生关系融洽的双语活动;另一方面，老师应充分利用双语教学会给学生提供更为强烈的学习目的和学习动机的优势，英语论文 发挥学生主观能动性，通过学生自己探索、团队合作、自主学习，培养学生兴趣，达到教学效果。考虑到学生英语水平的个体差异，给予充分的调查和考核，开展双语课的必修课与选修课并举，给学生更多的选择。学生的英语水平不高会导致学习缺乏信心，要及时调整，决不能“拣了芝麻、丢了西瓜”。

3.编制双语教学教材资料是实施双语教学的根本

教材是开展双语教学的载体，没有教材，双语教学便成了“无源之水”。双语教学的开展必须由依托外语原版教材和教学参考书为依托，这样才能保证师生接触到“原汁原味”的专业内容，也避免一些“误译”。但目前受到信息传播、资金、适用性等方面的限制，使用原版教材困难较大。解决的办法主要有:①通过对原版教材进行改编、整合，利用网络知识积累双语教学素材;②增加录像、多媒体等视听教材;③充分利用现有的双语教学参考书目和学科教材等手段，根据双语教学的目的、任务、现有条件，组织专业教师、外语专家等相关人员编制适用于本专业的教材。

4.完善的政策支持是开展双语教学的保障

双语教学是一个复杂的系统工程，牵涉到诸多方面的改革:如教学体制、考试制度、学生评价体系等。双语教学不仅需要教师、学生的努力，同时，还需要学校和整个社会的配合及政策支持。首先，应加大双语教学的奖励措施。勿庸置疑，双语教学的老师和学生要付出更多的时间和精力才能达到较好的教学效果，学校在制定有关政策时应予以充分考虑，如增加双语教师的业绩工作量，对率先实施双语教学并取得良好教学效果的老师给予必要的奖励，对学生双语考试的成绩予以备注说明(为学生就业考虑)，以及在同样学时情况下给学生提供更多的学分优势等，激励广大教师和学生积极参与到双语教学中来。其次，要建立双语教学效果的评估体系，使双语教学做到有章可循，如双语教学英语使用的比例，考试命题与答题是否要用英语以及评估双语教学质量的标准等等。

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[3]　邓俊，蒋昕.论旅游高等教育中的双语教学实践[J].旅游学刊·旅游人才与教育教学特刊，2003:38-41.